The first four case studies come from individual
Anglicans in Malaysia, Syria and Nigeria and United Churches in India. The case
studies were shared with the writers in November 2014. Although what follows
has been edited, the words, sentiments and conclusions are those shared by
these individuals from these four countries.
Malaysia
“Although
Malaysia had traditionally had an inclusive approach to religions, in 2001 the
Malaysian government declared that Islam was the state religion. After race
riots, there was a power struggle between different Islamic parties which moved
thinking away from the previous inclusive approach and laws were introduced
that marginalised minorities.”
“Currently Christians
cannot use the word Allah for God. At the grass root level, communities are
encouraged to introduce Sharia. It is not just the non-Islamic minorities that
feel persecuted, but also some of the more liberal Muslims. This has led to
migration from the country; as the more open and academic Muslims have left the
situation has become more extreme.”
“The situation is being
driven by identity, and a quest for meaning. For ethnic Malays, Islam gives
them this security. They feel that Indians have India, Chinese have China and
westerners have the West but Malays only have Malaysia! In a digital era young
people are impacted by outside influences and Malaysian Christians are concerned
by the extreme Islamic views in the Middle East.”
“Christians look towards
the eschatological hope in Christ, until then they live with that hope and try
to engage positively, rather than negatively. Of course, some Christians are
keen to leave and ‘feel called’ to minister elsewhere!”8
“Malaysian Christians are
unashamedly living by gospel values and living out their faith. Although many
Christians elsewhere say that Islam is a peaceful religion this doesn’t tie in
with Malaysia’s experience and it doesn’t sound as if such Christians know
about Islam in the Malaysian situation; they need to acknowledge the pain of
Malaysian Christians. Malaysian Christians want to see what these Christians
are doing in the way of policies. Malaysian Christians do not believe in a
prosperity gospel but are aware that Christians will suffer for gospel values.
They feel that there is confusion and a sense of chaos within the Anglican
Communion, related to the sexuality issue, as to what the world says and what
the bible says. Malaysian Christians believe that Anglicans should first
address what is happening within the Anglican Communion, then what is happening
in their own countries. At this time of suffering, Malaysian Christians want
narratives about what is happening that can encourage, rather than discourage
them.”
India
“In some places churches
are being destroyed by the majority Hindu community despite the congregations
feeling that they have done nothing to provoke such action. Elsewhere some
Christian property is being annexed by RSS* and it is very difficult to open
new churches.”
“There are examples of
churches being destroyed after missionaries, from other parts of India, have
demonised Hinduism either through the testimonies of recent converts or through
distributing pamphlets that demonise Hindu gods. The missionaries doing this then
leave the area and don’t suffer any consequences themselves. There can also be
a reaction against perceived inducements for people to convert to Christianity;
often there might be a narrow divide between Christian service, and respect for
Christian service, and a material inducement to become a Christian.”
“In some places
persecution is influenced by population explosion and economics; minorities are
blamed for the economic impact and are persecuted. People enjoy the financial
gains of a market economy, but fear the values that go with it.”
“Dalits** comprise 17% of
India’s population and tribal people 8% but Dalits and tribal people together
comprise 60% or more of Christians in the south and more than 80% of Christians
in the north. This means that often it is difficult to say whether Christians
are suffering for their faith or for their place within the caste system. The
Indian constitution protects minorities but, with political changes, it must be
questioned whether this can be sustained in the next five - ten years.”
* Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh - A Hindu nationalist
non-government organisation
** This is the self-chosen political name of the
castes in India that were formerly considered as "untouchable" within
the Hindu Varna system. The word Dalit means “oppressed" in Hindi and
Marathi.9
“In one area there was a
situation where tribal peoples killed a Hindu leader leading to a conflict
between the tribal peoples and the caste people with Christians being killed as
‘collateral damage’, rather than as part of any religious persecution.”
“There are also long term
missionaries dedicated to the area and work whose theology is such that they
expect to be persecuted for their witness, so they have acted knowing that
their actions are likely to bring about persecution upon themselves.”
“Having said this, most
Hindus, as always, are living in close proximity, and in mutual respect, to
Christians and share much, not least in education and other ways. Such majority
Hindus are deeply embarrassed by the scapegoating of Christians; this is
particularly true, in the South, where there are many Christians.”
Syria
“Syria is facing a
massive human tragedy with 300,000 lives lost and 5 – 6 million people displaced
(Sources suggest that an additional 55,000 were killed in 2015 and by March
2016 figures suggest 6.5 million internally displaced and 3 million in
neighbouring countries). Thousands of Christians are being killed and Christian
and Alawi women are being sold in markets. The level of suffering in the Middle
East is similar to that inflicted in 1259 – 60 by Genghis Khan. Young people,
between 17 and 23, are sharing absolute despair and saying ‘Are you asking us
to stay and die?’ The response is ‘If it is die or leave, then leave. If it to
stay in difficult circumstances, then stay.’ People are finding ways to stay
and paying a tax (in gold) to stay is a way of not converting.”
“What was suffered under
ISIS (Daesh) was horrible, but Muslim neighbours, betraying Christians to ISIS,
was worse. The Nazarene sign, meaning a follower of Jesus of Nazareth, was put
on houses. This meant the occupier could be killed and property taken; there is
the need to start building trust again. There is the need for a humanitarian
response but awareness of the real issues as well.”
“It is my understanding
that the rise of Islamic fundamentalism is still a taboo subject in the West
who speak of Jihadi’s, rather than Muslims, as it is not politically correct to
connect Jihadi’s to Islam. There is the need to engage with the current
persecution by Muslims. The Church in the West has failed to respond adequately
to the suffering of Christians in the Middle East. The West has also turned a
blind eye to the flow of Jihadis to Syria through Turkey.”
“There has been no
serious and persistent persecution of Christians in the western world for many
centuries, so there is an absence of a theology of persecution and suffering
for faith. Western Christianity has a habit of seeing Christianity as being a
western phenomenon; there is no concept of Middle10
Eastern culture when we
reflect theologically. Most protestant theology taught in the Middle East is
Western, ignoring the Middle Eastern heritage. Eastern Christians are used to
persecution, but not at this current level.”
“Martyrdom is not seeking
death for the sake of Christ; martyrdom is seeking life. But if asked to carry
the cross to death, we need to be obedient. The early church persecution was by
pagans but during the Crusades Christian suffering was caused by Western
Christians. Eastern Christians have been invisible to the West. Archbishop
Rowan said ‘If you want to learn about Christian martyrdom go to the Middle
East, not the history books’.”
“Three theological
principles:
• Obedience
to the Lord - Carrying your cross might be literal;
• Hope -
the world should see the hope in us and wonder about that hope. The challenge
of having, or not having, hope in the midst of persecution;
• Blessing
– ‘Blessed are those who are persecuted for righteousness sake, and those
persecuted for my name.’ We become a blessing in society and spread blessings;
an example has been closer ecumenical relationships in Middle East than
before.”
Nigeria
“In northern Nigeria,
even outside of the Boko Haram areas you can’t get land for a church if you ask
for it. Christians try to buy land for other purposes and then build a church
on it. The church is then demolished and this is seen as persecution.”
“The north east, where
Boko Haram is particularly active, is 96% Muslim, a similar percentage to
Somalia. So why do Boko Haram, see the need for further Islamisation? The
Sultan says that Boko Haram is not Islam, but this not being heard by the
Christians the south of Nigeria.”
“Northern Nigeria had 11
million Muslims and 400,000 Christians in 1958. An increased Christian
population in the southern part of the north has seen tensions rise. Only 3% of
those in the northern part of the north are indigenous Christians; Christians
from the southern part of northern Nigeria have sometimes moved to the northern
part. Some Pentecostals are causing problems, by trying to convert Muslims
without first having an existing relationship with them.”
“The theological mind-set
is very Western and the leadership has often been trained in the UK or US. If
there is no persecution then our belief in Christ is questionable. We are still
evolving an African theological understanding. Africa is very diverse:
East-West; North-South, Central; Ghanaian; Nigerian. There are huge differences
within Nigeria. The West is very offensive in trying to stereotype Africans or
even Nigerians; understanding the context is very important.”11
“In Africa there is often
hatred between the different religious communities. In Nigeria, an exception
has been the Yoruba, who have taken on board co-operation and who do relate and
will go to mosques and churches with family members. Sadly the Yoruba are
picking up on tensions from elsewhere. Relationships have been very bad, even
in majority Christian or majority Islam countries relationships are bad,
because of the lack of theological understanding.”
“Is the African able to
separate Christianity from tribe? As a Christian and a Nigerian, am I a
Christian Nigerian or a Nigerian Christian? Is the African Christian able to
accept common beliefs across Bible and Qur’an? The Pentecostals refuse to do
this, but we need to have some agreement before we can tackle Africa’s
problems. Pentecostals would also say that Allah is not God.”
“Nigeria is a microcosm of
Africa. What is the African biblical understanding of persecution? Africans see
themselves as brothers and sisters who care for each other across tribal
boundaries; but this has been lost amongst Christians.”
As was mentioned in the above narrative from Syria,
‘There has been no serious and persistent persecution of Christians in the
western world for many centuries.’ However, we have included case studies from
the USA and the Church in Sweden2. We are aware that these stories of
persecution from the USA and Sweden are at a very different level from that
described within the other narratives, but believe that they are representative
of Western countries and that this material helps shape the understanding of
persecution, and the theology of persecution, of many Christians in the West.
2 The Church of Sweden is, like other Lutheran
churches in the Nordic and Baltic countries, linked in the Porvoo Communion
with British and Irish Anglican churches in a relationship of full
intercommunion and interchangeability of ministries’
Both case studies were shared with the writers in
November 2014, but the Swedish story was updated a year later. Again, although
what follows has been edited, the words, sentiments and conclusions are those
shared by these individuals from these two countries. 12
Sweden
“If Christians can be
said to be subjected to any form of persecution in Sweden, it is a question of
very mild forms of harassment. Jews and Muslims are worse off, as there is
widespread anti-Semitism and islamophobia in society; especially Muslim women,
who wear a headscarf, are often subjected to harassment, sometimes in a violent
physical form.”
“If you are religious at
all in Sweden, many people tend to think that you are a bit daft. This will
mean that children can be bullied at school if they are openly Christian; not
only by their peers, but sometimes even by teachers. This, however, is slowly
changing as more children with an immigrant background are proud to be Muslims
or Christians, and the schools realize that they have to take religion more
seriously.”
“As long as religion is a
case of ideas, it is protected by the laws of freedom of speech. There have
been two instances where a few years ago a pastor and recently an imam were
brought to court for comparing homosexuality to a disease, but were acquitted.
Even though their opinions went counter to Swedish legislation and the general
opinion, they were allowed to express them.”
“A post-protestant,
secular society like Sweden has, however, difficulties understanding that
religion can also be expressed in dressing and eating. While halal slaughter,
where the animal is sedated before it is killed, is allowed, Jewish kosher
slaughter, where the animal cannot be sedated, is not allowed. Animal rights have
taken precedence over religious rights. Circumcision of boys is allowed, but
calls for making it unlawful have been raised several times lately. Children’s
rights to bodily autonomy is more important than religious rights, is the
argument put forward in favour of legislation.”
“A midwife cannot claim
that because of her Christian faith she cannot assist at abortions. A Muslim
nurse cannot claim that she must have long sleeves. Workplace rules and hygiene
take precedence before religious considerations.”
“It is often hard to
distinguish harassment on religious grounds from xenophobia. “Muslim” has
become a code word for “immigrant” in right wing extremism. The Muslim is the
‘ultimate other’”
“When harassment happens,
it is often between or within religious groups. A special Swedish feature is
the great number of Christians from the Middle East, who carry persecution
baggage with them; they are often very hostile to Muslims. This is a dilemma
for indigenous Swedish Christians, especially the Church of Sweden, who want to
cultivate good relations with both groups. Much anti-Semitism comes from
Muslims with roots in the Middle East.”13
“Another case is the
critique directed at Christians who engage publicly in inter faith dialogue,
especially Christian-Muslim dialogue. This comes particularly from other
Christians, often in liaison with right wing activists. This critique can
indeed take the form of rather vile harassment on social media, as well as
e-mail and phone calls of a threatening nature. At the moment this appears to
be a growing problem, that might hamper the development of inter faith
dialogue.”
North America
“In 2013, there were 115
attacks on places of worship and 75 fatalities. These have included attacks on
synagogues by neo-Nazis, which have also killed non-Jews.”
“There are ‘freedom of
speech’ demonstrations at the funerals of some homosexuals in the armed forces
and also at some family planning clinics. Some opposition by people to the
‘Obama Care’ health care reforms was because it includes family planning.”
“This persecution in the
US is from the extreme right, often the Christian religious right, who are not
comfortable with diversity. These acts are classified as hate crimes and are
prosecuted. Secularism is seen as a bad thing.”
“Although the US
considers itself the most religious country in the world, I believe that
theological literacy can be poor, and that the persecution, referred to above,
comes out of a particular Christian theology. On a positive note, acts of
persecution can often bring people and communities together and lead to some
sense of healing.”14
These two historic case studies consider
some of the issues related to surviving persecution.
vii. 3rd century Carthage, North Africa
In the year 250, the
Roman authorities demanded that all citizens should sacrifice to pagan gods;
Christian bishops were particularly targeted with the threat of execution.
Shortly before this, Cyprian had been appointed as Bishop of Carthage. This
choice was controversial; welcomed by the poor, but opposed by many of the
senior clergy who felt that his rise to this position had been too rapid.
Rather than face potential execution, Cyprian fled. He explained that it was
important for the bishop, as shepherd, to remain alive and be able to lead his
people from a distance and that this was what God willed. He also saw
precedents in the lives of some of the apostles. Those opposed to his
appointment as bishop condemned him as a coward.
During the subsequent
persecution, many Christians either, under the threat of persecution, signed a
certificate to say that they had sacrificed to pagan gods or, in response to
persecution, torture, confiscation of property or death had actually
sacrificed. From a distance, Cyprian demanded public penance before such
Christians were re-admitted to the church. Some of those presbyters who had
opposed Cyprian’s appointment as bishop ignored his authority and allowed these
Christians back easily, with minimal penance.
Schism occurred when
these presbyters who were opposed to Cyprian elected Fortunatus as bishop in
opposition to Cyprian. There was a similar schism in Rome at this time, when
Novatian, who took a firmer stand than Cyprian, and refused absolution to any
Christians who had sacrificed to Roman gods, was elected bishop of Rome, in
opposition to Cornelius. The Novatianists then also appointed Maximus, a rival
bishop of their own, as a third bishop in Carthage. Cyprian, insisting upon
public penance, was now seen as a moderating influence between these other two
positions of either not requiring penance or refusing any absolution.15
17th century Japan:
Following the Shimabara rebellion of 1638, in order
to eradicate Christianity, the whole population of Japan were required to
register at a family temple and be issued with a temple certificate to confirm
that none of them were Christians. To enable this, an annual rite, entitled
ebumi (image trampling), required people to trample upon Christian imagery. To
encourage apostasy, rather than death, some very long and lingering forms of
death had been devised for those who confessed Christianity and refused ebumi.
To avoid death, and the wiping out of Christianity,
many Christian communities chose ebumi followed by prayers of confession. Some
communities took along spare straw sandals for this act of desecration and as
soon as possible, changed out of these soiled sandals, burnt them, added water
to the ash and drank this mixture as an act of penance.
From this period, there also survive several
artefacts which present initially as ordinary Buddhist / Shinto / folk
religious objects, but which closer inspection reveals to conceal Christian
devotional aids, e.g. a Cross appears when light is shone through a Shinto
sacred mirror, a crucifix is carved into the back of a sitting statue of the
Buddha, the Virgin Mary is depicted in the form of the bodhisattva of
compassion Kannon.
